[13]根据一项估计，强迫消费者为因他们的选择造成的环境损害支付全部费用，将使荷兰的农产品贸易额降低4.2%，因为一些国内产品的售价将低于进口农产品。参见 LórántTavasszy, JorritHarmsen, OlgaIvanova, andTatyanaBulavskaya,“EffectofaFullInternalizationofExternalCostsofGlobalSupplyChainsonProduction, Trade, andTransport,”inTowardsInnovativeFreightandLogistics, , UweClausen, andBernardJacob (Paris: TransportResearchArena, 2014), 337–351; CarolineSaundersandAndrewBarber,“CarbonFootprints, LifeCycleAnalysis, FoodMiles: GlobalTradeTrendsandMarketIssues,”PoliticalScience60 (2008): 73–88; AlisonSmithetal., TheValidityofFoodMilesasanIndicatorofSustainableDevelopment (London: DepartmentoftheEnvironment, Food, andRuralAffairs, 2005)。根据AncaCristea, DavidHummels, LauraPuzzello, andMisakAvetisyan,“TradeandtheGreenhouseGasEmissionsfromInternationalFreightTransport,”JournalofEnvironmentalEconomicsandManagement65 (2013): 153–173，国际贸易中大约1/4的交易——主要是矿物和农产品贸易——减少了温室气体排放。如果没有国际贸易，制造这些商品会产生更多的温室气体。
[14],“OptionsforReducingLogistics-RelatedEmissionsfromGlobalValueChains,”EuropeanUniversityInstituteworkingpaperRSCAS2014/31 (2014).
[15]DavidHummels,“TransportationCostsandInternationalTradeintheSecondEraofGlobalization,”JournalofEconomicPerspectives21 (2007): 131–154; InternationalAirTransportAssociation,“IATACargoStrategy”(2018); RalphSims, RobertoSchaeffer, FelixCreutzig, XochitlCruz-Nú?ez, MarcioD’Agosto, DeliaDimitriu, MariaJosefinaFigueroaMeza, etal.,“Transport,”inClimateChange2014: MitigationofClimateChange, .(Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress, 2014), 646.
[16]AlanMcKinnon,“ThePossibleInfluenceoftheShipperonCarbonEmissionsfromDeep-SeaContainerSupplyChains: AnEmpiricalAnalysis,”MaritimeEconomicsandLogistics16 (2014): 1–19.虽然根据国际海事组织和国际能源署的数据，2008年以后海运业的温室气体排放量并未增加，但根据NayaOlmer, BryanComer, BiswajoyRoy, XiaoliMao, andDanRutherford, GreenhouseGasEmissionsfromGlobalShipping, 2013–2015 (Washington, DC: InternationalCouncilforCleanTransportation, 2017)，直到2015年，该行业温室气体的年排放量仍在增加。
[17]InternationalMaritimeOrganization,“InitialIMOStrategyonReductionofGHGEmissionsfromShips,”ResolutionMEPC.304(72) (April13, 2018).船舶燃料硫含量的上限从4.5%降到了0.5%。
[18]LeslieHookandJohnReed,“WhytheWorld’sRecyclingSystemStoppedWorking,”FinancialTimes, October25, 2018.
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